Reversible summitting behaviour of Dicrocoelium-infected ants

Dicrocoelium dendriticum (Trematoda) larvae cause their ant hosts to attach themselves to a plant with their mandibles. Infected ants detach a few hours later, then repeat the attach/detach sequence over subsequent days. Recognition of reversibility in altered host behaviours can enhance our understanding of the general phenomenon of host manipulation.

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What’s in a name? Discovering Leishmania

2 June 2026 marked the centenary of the death of Sir William Boog Leishman, the Scottish physician after whom Leishmania was named. However, he was not the first to describe the parasite. In this article, we recount this discovery and explain the etymological conventions that ensured Leishman’s name was preserved in scientific history.

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New insights on Plasmodium gene expression from direct RNA sequencing

Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) direct RNA sequencing enables the sequencing of native RNA molecules without cDNA conversion. The long-read approach captures full-length reads spanning entire genes and has transformed the study of gene expression in Plasmodium parasites by enabling analysis of untranslated regions, isoforms, and alternative splicing. In addition, ONT provides unique insights into non-coding RNAs, RNA modifications, and polyadenylated tail dynamics, which are expanding our understanding of post-transcriptional regulation in Plasmodium, including processes beyond translational repression in gametocytes and sporozoites. Here, we discuss the past and future applications of direct RNA sequencing in Plasmodium research and highlight its advantages, limitations, and future prospects.

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Equitable access to monoclonal antibodies targeting parasites

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have reshaped prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. However, the development of mAbs against parasitic diseases that disproportionately impact populations in resource-limited settings has received lower priority. Recent trials in Africa show that long-acting mAbs can prevent Plasmodium falciparum infection in children and adults. Early studies suggest that mAb pharmacokinetics differ between malaria-endemic and nonendemic populations, with age and prior parasite exposure possibly affecting the minimum amount of mAb required for durable protection. We present evidence that antiparasitic mAb studies should account for fragment crystallizable receptor polymorphisms and host factors commonly found in endemic populations. We discuss economic and manufacturing barriers to accessing mAbs in resource-limited settings, which have implications for the future use of these promising interventions.

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More than just a phase: the essential role of condensates in Trypanosoma brucei survival

The study of biomolecular condensates and other membraneless organelles has shifted the paradigm of cellular organisation, yet their role in parasitic biology remains an emerging field. While model eukaryotes provide the blueprint for phase separation and spatial compartmentalisation, kinetoplastid parasites offer a unique lens through which to explore the functional limits of these ‘regulatory hubs’. In this opinion article, we argue that their unconventional biology renders them valuable models for understanding spatial regulation of gene expression. While Trypanosoma brucei serves as the current benchmark, significant gaps remain regarding condensate diversity across other kinetoplastids. We propose a broader investigation into whether these organisms utilise conserved condensates with divergent molecular compositions or entirely novel assemblies to drive their life cycle, pathogenesis, and immune evasion.

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Questing for sustainable control of cattle ticks: bottlenecks in developing efficacious vaccines

Naturally acquired immunity against cattle ticks, observed in certain breeds of cattle, indicates that development of vaccines to prevent infestations is feasible. This opinion article focuses on the knowledge needed to guide their development, formulation, and testing. It discusses the limitations of current experimental vaccines and tests used to evaluate them and points to the research needed to achieve a truly efficacious vaccine. It includes using better strategies to select antigens, not relying solely on indirect readouts of efficacy but rather elucidating the immune mechanisms responsible for reducing tick loads and overcoming the low coverage of the host’s major histocompatibility complex class II molecules, as well as avoiding confounding factors in designs for testing vaccines and considering management practices that impact efficacy.

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India’s hidden malaria parasitome and zoonotic challenges to elimination

India’s current malaria elimination success relies on targeting Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. However, sustaining complete elimination requires expanding beyond this species-centric focus. Embracing a broader One Health paradigm is essential for integrating hidden parasite diversity, addressing zoonotic malaria threats, and implementing risk-based surveillance to detect emerging transmission pathways early.

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Leptomonas pyrrhocoris

Leptomonas pyrrhocoris is a common parasite of the firebug Pyrrhocoris apterus. In contrast to most insect-restricted trypanosomatids, it is incapable of long-term survival in the environment. Moreover, it does not attach to the intestinal wall but can exit into the hemocoel and colonize other host organs, including the salivary glands. The gregarious lifestyle and the omnivorous habit of P. apterus result in frequent coprophagy, cannibalism toward dead and vulnerable molting insects, as well as contamination of food objects during collective feeding.

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Metabolite-effector immunity against malaria

Jaundice, caused by the accumulation of bilirubin in plasma, is clinically interpreted as a maladaptive consequence of hemolysis or as indicative of hepatic failure. Drawing on genetic, biochemical, and clinical evidence, we propose to reframe jaundice as an adaptive response to malaria, a hemolytic disease caused by Plasmodium spp. infection. Bilirubin, the molecular basis of jaundice, represents an effector arm of metabolic immunity, distinct from nutritional immunity, which restricts pathogen access to essential nutrients, and from immunometabolism, which shapes immune cell function. In this opinion article, we outline bilirubin’s multitarget antiplasmodial mechanisms, define its protective threshold, and discuss its evolutionary implications. We propose metabolite-effector immunity as a broadly applicable framework for host–pathogen biology.

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The Giardia secretome disrupts gut microbiota biofilms

This review provides a state-of-the-art update on Giardia intestinalis pathogenesis and its immunomodulatory effects during enteric coinfections. We examine mechanisms underlying abnormalities in mucus structure and glycosylation, alongside parasite-induced alterations in host immunity. Recent evidence reveals a protective role for gut microbiota biofilms and demonstrates how the Giardia secretome disrupts these communities. In particular, trophozoite-derived cysteine proteases and extracellular vesicles, along with their small RNA cargo, remodel microbiota biofilms and drive the conversion of commensal bacteria into invasive pathobionts. Collectively, these findings establish Giardia as a central regulator of gut microbial ecology and intestinal barrier function, highlighting its value as a model for developing novel therapeutic strategies against enteric disease.

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Evidence for the multistage malaria vaccine gamble

New vaccines to reduce disease and mortality caused by Plasmodium falciparum malaria are urgently needed. Most vaccines target a single life-cycle stage and confer modest protection. Kirtley et al. test whether multistage immunity can improve protection and provide some of the first evidence that ‘multistage’ vaccines should be pursued.

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A framework to integrate parasites into micro- and nanoplastic pollution research

Plastic pollution is a global issue. Research on its effects on free-living organisms is growing, but the mechanisms by which micro- and nanoplastics interact with host–parasite systems and their ecological and evolutionary implications remain largely unknown. We propose a framework to better integrate parasites into the context of plastic pollution.

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The underappreciated role of antigenic drift in Trypanosoma brucei immune evasion

Trypanosoma brucei is an extracellular pathogen that evades the host antibody response through antigenic variation of its variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coat. It has long been believed that this immune evasion is achieved primarily by replacing the expressed VSG coat with a completely distinct antigen, resulting in complete immune evasion. However, recent evidence suggests that the parasite preferentially diversifies expressed VSGs by introducing small sequence changes through recombination. These modifications appear to accumulate until complete immune evasion is achieved. In this opinion article, we propose that the concepts of antigenic drift and shift, commonly used in the field of influenza research, apply well to antigenic variation in T. brucei and better reflect the complex nature of immune evasion in this pathogen.

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Beyond detoxification: xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes rewire mosquito sensory perception

Mosquito olfaction regulates host-seeking, ecological adaptation, and vectorial capacity. Beyond the classical receptor-centric paradigm, we argue that xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes form a dynamic perireceptor layer that actively sculpts odor identity, signal intensity, and duration. This metabolism gain control mechanism may integrate olfactory sensitivity and behavioral plasticity within a unified sensory framework.

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Tropilaelaps mercedesae: rapid geographic expansion in a novel honey bee host

An ectoparasitic mite of the giant honey bees throughout southern and eastern Asia, Tropilaelaps mercedesae, has jumped to the western honey bee Apis mellifera and expanded its range, most recently to Eastern Europe. This has rattled an already precarious A. mellifera beekeeping industry, which is grappling with another invasive ectoparasitic mite called Varroa destructor. Here, we review the known biology and pathology of T. mercedesae in its original and novel hosts, discuss current monitoring and treatment options, and identify gaps in knowledge and preparedness. We also compare the natural histories of T. mercedesae and V. destructor to facilitate future directions for research and outreach that promote a timely response to this mite’s growing sphere of influence.

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Interleukin-25: orchestrating resistance to intestinal helminth infections

Interleukin-25 (IL-25) has emerged as a central regulator of type 2 immunity at mucosal surfaces. Beyond its classical role as an epithelial alarmin, IL-25 acts as a multifunctional coordinator of epithelial sensing, immune activation, and tissue adaptation during helminth infection. In the intestine, tuft cells detect helminth- and microbiota-derived metabolites and activate a feed-forward circuit with type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), promoting antiparasitic immunity and barrier protection. Emerging evidence further links IL-25 to neuroimmune communication, epithelial remodeling, tissue resilience, and disease tolerance. Here, we summarize recent advances in IL-25 biology, including ILC2 specialization and the distinct roles of IL-25 in nematode and trematode infections, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic target to enhance mucosal protection while limiting immunopathology.

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Sensing the enemy within: Vγ9Vδ2 T cells as metabolic sensors of intracellular parasites

V gamma 9 V delta 2 (Vγ9Vδ2) T cells, the predominant γδ T cell population in human peripheral blood, uniquely recognize nonpeptidic phosphoantigens (pAgs) independent of major histocompatibility complex molecules. This sensing mechanism relies on intracellular pAg accumulation, which triggers heteromeric cooperation between transmembrane butyrophilin 3A1 (BTN3A1) and butyrophilin 2A1 (BTN2A1) receptors to activate the γδ T cell receptor. This review synthesizes current knowledge of Vγ9Vδ2 T cell immunobiology, focusing on responses to Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii. We examine how these cells detect parasite- or host-derived pAgs to drive rapid cytotoxicity and interferon gamma production. Understanding these sensing mechanisms offers novel insights for harnessing γδ T cells in antiparasitic therapies and vaccine design.

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Emerging methods in noninvasive parasite surveillance in wildlife disease ecology

Noninvasive approaches are increasingly reshaping parasite and disease surveillance by reducing stress and harm to hosts while expanding opportunities for ecological and epidemiological research. In this opinion article, we discuss these emerging approaches, which rely on molecular, citizen-science, and computational methods, for monitoring parasites, vectors, and hosts. These tools can improve spatial and temporal coverage, support the surveillance of rare or threatened hosts and parasites, and contribute to the understanding of transmission pathways and disease dynamics. However, their reliability depends on careful validation, standardized protocols, and awareness of methodological limitations. While not direct substitutes for invasive methods, these approaches lift a considerable burden from wildlife. Integrating noninvasive approaches thus provides a strong basis for advancing disease ecology, wildlife health monitoring, and biodiversity conservation.

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Dermacentor auratus (gilded boar tick)

Dermacentor (Indocentor) auratus Supino, 1897 is the most widespread Indocentor tick in South and Southeast Asia and is increasingly recognised as a medically important tick at the wildlife–human interface. This tick has been reported from more than 50 host species, with adults found primarily on wild boars (Sus scrofa), while immatures infest a range of mammals and birds, enabling persistence across forested, rural, and peri-urban environments. It predominantly exhibits a three-host life cycle, though it can also engage in a facultative two-host life cycle.

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From signal to action: integrating emerging technologies into mosquito-borne disease control

Mosquito-borne disease control is increasingly challenged by transmission patterns that evade established tools. This review examines emerging technologies across the surveillance-to-intervention pathway. Smart traps, AI-assisted classification, aerial and remote sensing, sequencing, mosquito-derived and environmental samples, and field diagnostics are beginning to form a layered surveillance architecture that links local and long-range vector dynamics with pathogen detection. Wolbachia, natural and engineered symbionts, entomopathogenic fungi, and transgenic biocontrol tools extend control beyond direct killing, offering different balances of efficacy, controllability, persistence, cost, and biosafety. We assess how these technologies coordinate to generate actionable signals or durable transmission-reducing effects while fitting clear response pathways and remaining useful under ecological complexity, with any associated risks clearly characterized and managed with confidence.

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Malaria and cancer: common features and interactions

Malaria and cancer are major global health burdens, causing high mortality. While often considered distinct, the two conditions share common features, including continuous cell replication within the body, systemic inflammation, immune modulation and evasion, metabolic reprogramming, endothelial dysfunction, and drug efflux mechanisms. Interestingly, whereas malaria parasite infection promotes Burkitt lymphoma, recent studies in animal models indicate that malaria may activate immune mechanisms against various tumors, thereby improving survival rates. The malaria protein VAR2CSA specifically binds to chondroitin sulfate A in the placenta and metastatic cancer cells, which can be exploited for cancer detection and treatment. Studying the common and unique features of malaria and cancer may facilitate the development of treatment strategies for both diseases.

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Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae

Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae is the causative agent of proliferative kidney disease (PKD), a major temperature-sensitive disease affecting wild and farmed salmonids. It is a microscopic endoparasite belonging to the subphylum Myxozoa, a lineage of highly reduced cnidarians. The parasite has a two-host life cycle, alternating between freshwater bryozoans and salmonid fish. In bryozoans, it proliferates and forms sacs where sporogenesis occurs. Spores released into the water infect fish, where the parasite proliferates in the vascular system and internal organs, predominantly in the kidney.

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Complement C1q-binding protein at the host–protozoan interface: knowns and unknowns

Complement C1q-binding protein (C1QBP) is exploited by protozoan parasites. In this forum, we summarize direct evidence for C1QBP as an adhesion receptor (Plasmodium) and an immune subversion target (Toxoplasma), highlight gaps, and propose research priorities to define C1QBP as a multifunctional signaling hub at the host–parasite interface.

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Toxo18 in Brazil: emerging trends in Toxoplasma biology

The 18th International Congress on Toxoplasmosis was held between 14 and 17 June 2026, at the Atlântico Búzios Convention & Resort in Armação dos Búzios, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This venue also hosted the conference celebrating the centennial anniversary of Toxoplasma gondii back in 2008. In a rich and friendly atmosphere, the official ‘Toxo meeting’ was held in Brazil for the first time, bringing together researchers from all around the world to discuss recent scientific advances regarding T. gondii, from parasite biology to public health implications.

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Dissection versus PCR: Malaria vector incrimination in the molecular era

Nonhuman primate (NHP) malaria threatens Southeast Asia’s 2030 elimination goals as human infections rise across the region. Identifying the correct vectors is important for controlling the disease. This forum advocates for integrating dissection with polymerase chain reaction to ensure precise identification of the vectors driving NHP malaria infections in humans.

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Aedes japonicus (Asian bush mosquito)

The Asian bush mosquito, Aedes japonicus, is an invasive species native to East Asia. Since its initial detection outside its native range in New Zealand in the 1990s, this species has spread extensively across North America and Europe. Anthropogenic activities, notably international trade that displaces eggs or larvae from one country to another, and climate change, which increases habitat suitability, likely facilitate its expansion. Its invasive success is attributed to physiological resilience enabling long-distance dispersal and tolerance of low winter temperatures, including freeze- and desiccation-resistant eggs capable of winter diapause.

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Sequencing parasite genomes, one worm at a time

Genomes are central to understanding how parasitic worms—a taxonomically diverse group comprising roundworms (nematodes) and flatworms (platyhelminths)—adapt to and persist in their hosts and environments. The ongoing genomics revolution is delivering high-quality genomes across the tree of life, but parasitic worms risk being left behind due to limited sample accessibility, low DNA yield, and high genetic diversity. Advances in whole-genome amplification and long-read sequencing now allow high-quality genomes to be generated from individual worms. We argue that these approaches will drive a rapid increase in the quality and diversity of parasitic worm reference genomes and enable a transition toward pangenomes that fully capture within-species variation. Together, these advances will provide a more complete understanding of parasitic worm biology.

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Shaping an image: 3D-printable models of parasites

Parasites display many three-dimensional (3D) features that are related to their parasitic lifestyle. Using two-dimensional images alone, such 3D features are difficult to convey during teaching or public outreach. Thus, we provide parasite models for 3D printing to support education and to encourage adoption and adaptation by the parasitology community.

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Hidden diversity in Trichuris control

Recent advances in combination therapies have improved trichuriasis treatment, yet efficacy remains highly variable. Emerging genomic, clinical, and epidemiological evidence suggests that this variability may reflect hidden biological diversity rather than operational factors alone. Recognizing this complexity is essential to align control strategies with parasite biology and achieve sustainable outcomes.

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The second Cryptosporidium meeting: Edinburgh’s parasite deep dive

The second Biennial Cryptosporidium Meeting was held from 24 to 26 May 2026, at The Royal Society of Edinburgh, Scotland, bringing together over 80 researchers to discuss the latest advances in Cryptosporidium biology and disease control. In this TrendsTalk, we invited young scientists at the conference to highlight key scientific insights and memorable moments from this vibrant gathering of the Cryptosporidium community.

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